POTK: Prijs Overeen Te Komen
POTK: Pot Kitchenware.
POTK: POT Kief or Pot kif: 1) the chopped flowering tops of female cannabis
plants, often mixed with tobacco; 2) Moroccan hashish produced in the Rif
mountains;3) sifted cannabis trichomes consisting of only the glandular "heads"
(often incorrectly referred to as "crystals" or "pollen") 4) The crystal (trichomes)
left at the bottom of a grinder after grinding marijuana; then smoked.
A kitchen, at least in the western view of the word, is a room or part of a
room (sometimes called "kitchen area" or in modern times in the USA
"kitchenette") used for food preparation including cooking, and sometimes also
for eating and entertaining guests, if the kitchen is large enough and designed
to be used that way.
A modern kitchen in the affluent parts of the western world is typically
equipped with a stove and possibly a microwave oven. It also has a sink with hot
and cold running water available for cleaning food, for providing water to cook
with, as well as for washing dishes, although some modern kitchens have a
dishwasher. One or more units in which to store food, and to store utensils,
pots and dishes, are also usually present in or near a kitchen, either in the
form of an adjacent pantry room, or more commonly as kitchen cabinets and a
refrigerator which often has a freezer compartment too.
Although the main function of a kitchen is supposed to be cooking or preparing
food, the kitchen can be the center of other activities as well, especially
within homes, depending on the size, furnishings, and equipment. If, as
sometimes happens, the home does not have a laundry room, but instead has a
washing machine and possibly a dryer in a closet in the kitchen, then washing
and drying laundry may also be done in the same room. The kitchen may also be
the place where the family eats, provided it is large enough and has a table and
chairs. Sometimes, the kitchen is the most comforting room in a house, where
family and visitors tend to congregate. In this respect a large modern kitchen
is still the psychological "hearth" of the home.
Enlarge picture
A modern western kitchen offers a stove, sink, and cabinets among other
amenities.
The evolution of the kitchen
The development of the kitchen in the western world has been intricately and
intrinsically linked with the development of the cooking range or stove. Until
the 18th century, open fire or charcoal were the sole means of heating food, and
the architecture of the kitchen reflected this. When technical advances brought
new ways to heat food in the 18th and 19th centuries, architects took advantage
of newly-gained flexibility to bring fundamental changes to the kitchen. Water
on tap in private homes only became gradually available in the western world
during industrialization and more recently than that; before, water had to be
collected from the nearest outdoor source: well, pump, or spring, and then
carried to the kitchen and heated or used in some other way.
Ancient history
The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type: the rooms were
arranged around a central courtyard. In many such homes, a covered but otherwise
open patio served as the kitchen. Homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a
separate room, usually next to a bathroom (so that both rooms could be heated by
the kitchen fire), both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses,
there was often a separate small storage room in the back of the kitchen used
for storing food and kitchen utensils.
In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities often had no kitchen of their own;
they did their cooking in large public kitchens. Some had small mobile bronze
stoves, on which a fire could be lit for cooking. Wealthy Romans had relatively
well-equipped kitchens. In a Roman villa, the kitchen was typically integrated
into the main building as a separate room, set apart for practical reasons of
smoke and sociological reasons of the kitchen being operated by slaves. The
fireplace was typically on the floor, placed at a wall—sometimes raised a little
bit—such that one had to kneel to cook. There were no chimneys.
Middle Ages
Enlarge picture
The roasting spit in this European medieval kitchen was driven automatically by
a propeller—the black cloverleaf-like structure in the upper left.
Early medieval European longhouses had an open fire under the highest point of
the building. The "kitchen area" was between the entrance and the fireplace. In
wealthy homes there was typically more than one kitchen. In some homes there
were upwards of three kitchens. The kitchens were divided based on the types of
food prepared in them. [1] In place of a chimney, these early buildings had a
hole in the roof through which some of the smoke could escape. Besides cooking,
the fire also served as a source of heat and light to the single-room building.
A similar design can be found in the Iroquois longhouses of North America.
In the larger homesteads of European nobles, the kitchen was sometimes in a
separate sunken floor building to keep the main building, which served social
and official purposes, free from indoor smoke.
The first known stoves in Japan date from about the same time. The earliest
findings are from the Kofun period (3rd to 6th century). These stoves, called
kamado, were typically made of clay and mortar; they were fired with wood or
charcoal through a hole in the front and had a hole in the top, into which a pot
could be hanged by its rim. This type of stove remained in use for centuries to
come, with only minor modifications. Like in Europe, the wealthier homes had a
separate building which served for cooking. A kind of open fire pit fired with
charcoal, called irori, remained in use as the secondary stove in most homes
until the Edo period (17th to 19th century). A kamado was used to cook the
staple food, for instance rice, while irori served both to cook side dishes and
as a heat source.
The kitchen remained largely unaffected by architectural advances throughout the
Middle Ages; open fire remained the only method of heating food. European
medieval kitchens were dark, smokey, and sooty places, whence their name "smoke
kitchen". In European medieval cities around the 10th to 12th centuries, the
kitchen still used an open fire hearth in the middle of the room. In wealthy
homes, the ground floor was often used as a stable while the kitchen was located
on the floor above, like the bedroom and the hall. In castles and monasteries,
the living and working areas were separated; the kitchen was sometimes moved to
a separate building, and thus couldn't serve anymore to heat the living rooms.
In some castles the kitchen was retained in the same structure, but servants
were strictly separated from nobles, by constructing separate spiral stone
staircases for use of servants to bring food to upper levels. An extant example
of such a medieval kitchen with servants's staircase is at Muchalls Castle in
Scotland. In Japanese homes, the kitchen started to become a separate room
within the main building at that time.
With the advent of the chimney, the hearth moved from the center of the room to
one wall, and the first brick-and-mortar hearths were built. The fire was lit on
top of the construction; a vault underneath served to store wood. Pots made of
iron, bronze, or copper started to replace the pottery used earlier. The
temperature was controlled by hanging the pot higher or lower over the fire, or
placing it on a trivet or directly on the hot ashes. Using open fire for cooking
(and heating) was risky; fires devastating whole cities occurred frequently.
Leonardo da Vinci invented an automated system for a rotating spit for
spit-roasting: a propeller in the chimney made the spit turn all by itself. This
kind of system was widely used in wealthier homes. Beginning in the late Middle
Ages, kitchens in Europe lost their home-heating function even more and were
increasingly moved from the living area into a separate room. The living room
was now heated by tiled stoves, operated from the kitchen, which offered the
huge advantage of not filling the room with smoke.
Freed from smoke and dirt, the living room thus began to serve as an area for
social functions and increasingly became a showcase for the owner's wealth and
was sometimes prestigiously furnished. In the upper classes, cooking and the
kitchen were the domain of the servants, and the kitchen was set apart from the
living rooms, sometimes even far from the dining room. Poorer homes often did
not have a separate kitchen yet; they kept the one-room arrangement where all
activities took place, or at the most had the kitchen in the entrance hall.
The medieval smoke kitchen (or Farmhouse kitchen) remained common, especially in
rural farmhouses and generally in poorer homes, until much later. In a few
European farmhouses, the smoke kitchen was in regular use until the middle of
the 20th century. These houses often had no chimney, but only a smoke hood above
the fireplace, made of wood and covered with clay, and used to smoke meat. The
smoke then rose more or less freely, warming the upstairs rooms and protecting
the woodwork from vermin.
Colonial American kitchens
In the Colonial American kitchen, the same distinction as for the medieval
European kitchen is visible. The early settlers in the north often had no
separate kitchen; a fireplace in a corner of the cabin served as the kitchen
space. Later, the kitchen did become a separate room, but remained within the
building.
The development in the southern states was quite different, but then, so were
the climate and sociological conditions. In southern estates, the kitchen was
often relegated to an outhouse, separated from the mansion, for much of the same
reasons as in the feudal kitchen in medieval Europe: the kitchen was operated by
slaves, and their working place had to be separated from the living area of the
masters by the social standards of the time. In addition, the area's warm
climate made operating a kitchen quite unpleasant, especially in the summer.
Completely separated "summer kitchens" also developed on larger farms further
north to avoid that the main house was heated by the preparation of the meals
for the harvest workers or tasks like canning.
Industrialization
Enlarge picture
A park interpreter demonstrates a typical rural American kitchen of 1918 at The
Sauer-Beckmann Farmstead, a living history farm in Texas.
Technological advances during industrialization brought major changes to the
kitchen. Iron stoves, which enclosed the fire completely and were more
efficient, appeared. Early models included the Franklin stove around 1740, which
was a furnace stove intended for heating, not for cooking. Benjamin Thompson in
England designed his "Rumford stove" around 1800. This stove was much more
energy efficient than earlier stoves; it used one fire to heat several pots,
which were hung into holes on top of the stove and were thus heated from all
sides instead of just from the bottom. However, his stove was designed for large
kitchens; it was too big for domestic use. The "Oberlin stove" was a refinement
of the technique that resulted in a size reduction; it was patented in the U.S.
in 1834 and became a commercial success with some 90,000 units sold over the
next 30 years. These stoves were still fired with wood or coal. Although the
first gas street lamps were installed in Paris, London, and Berlin at the
beginning of the 1820s and the first U.S. patent on a gas stove was granted in
1825, it wasn't until the late 19th century that using gas for lighting and
cooking became commonplace in urban areas.
The urbanization in the second half of the 19th century induced other
significant changes that would ultimately change the kitchen. Out of sheer
necessity, cities began planning and building water distribution pipes into
homes, and built sewers to deal with the waste water. Gas pipes were laid; gas
was used first for lighting purposes, but once the network had grown
sufficiently, it also became available for heating and cooking on gas stoves. At
the turn of the 20th century, electricity had been mastered well enough to
become a commercially viable alternative to gas and slowly started replacing the
latter. But like the gas stove, the electrical stove had a slow start. The first
electrical stove had been presented in 1893 at the Chicago world fair, but it
wasn't until the 1930s that the technology was stable enough and began to take
off.
Industrialization also caused social changes. The new factory working class in
the cities was housed under generally poor conditions. Whole families lived in
small one or two-room apartments in tenement buildings up to six stories high,
badly aired and with insufficient lighting. Sometimes, they shared apartments
with "night sleepers", unmarried men who paid for a bed at night. The kitchen in
such an apartment was often used as a living and sleeping room, and even as a
bathroom. Water had to be fetched from wells and heated on the stove. Water
pipes were laid only towards the end of the 19th century, and then often only
with one tap per building or per story. Brick-and-mortar stoves fired with coal
remained the norm until well into the second half of the century. Pots and
kitchenware were typically stored on open shelves, and parts of the room could
be separated from the rest using simple curtains.
In contrast, there were no dramatic changes for the upper classes. The kitchen,
located in the basement or the ground floor, continued to be operated by
servants. In some houses, water pumps were installed, and some even had kitchen
sinks and drains (but no water on tap yet, except for some feudal kitchens in
castles). The kitchen became a much cleaner space with the advent of "cooking
machines", closed stoves made of iron plates and fired by wood and increasingly
charcoal or coal, and that had flue pipes connected to the chimney. For the
servants the kitchen continued to also serve as a sleeping room; they slept
either on the floor, or later in narrow spaces above a lowered ceiling, for the
new stoves with their smoke outlet no longer required a high ceiling in the
kitchen. The kitchen floors were tiled; kitchenware was neatly stored in
cupboards to protect them from dust and steam. A large table served as a
workbench; there were at least as many chairs as there were servants, for the
table in the kitchen also doubled as the eating place for the servants.
The middle class tried to imitate the luxurious dining styles of the upper class
as best as it could. Living in smaller apartments, the kitchen was the main
room—here, the family lived. The study or living room was saved for special
occasions such as an occasional dinner invitation. Because of this, these
middle-class kitchens were often more homely than those of the upper class,
where the kitchen was a work-only room occupied only by the servants. Besides a
cupboard to store the kitchenware, there were a table and chairs, where the
family would dine, and sometimes—if space allowed—even a fauteuil or a couch.
Gas pipes were first laid in the late 19th century, and gas stoves started to
replace the older coal-fired stoves. Gas was more expensive than coal, though,
and thus the new technology was first installed in the wealthier homes. Where
workers' apartments were equipped with a gas stove, gas distribution would go
through a coin meter.
In rural areas, the older technology using coal or wood stoves or even
brick-and-mortar open fireplaces remained common throughout. Gas and water pipes
were first installed in the big cities; small villages were connected only much
later.
Rationalization
The trend to increasing gasification and electrification continued at the turn
of the 20th century. In industry, it was the phase of rationalisation, where
work processes were attempted to be streamlined. Taylorism was born, and
time-motion studies were used to optimize processes. These ideas also spilled
over into domestic kitchen architecture because of a growing trend that called
for a professionalization of household work, started in the mid-19th century by
Catharine Beecher and amplified by Christine Frederick's publications in the
1910s.
Enlarge picture
The Frankfurt kitchen was designed after Taylorist principles.
Working class women frequently worked in factories to ensure the family's
survival, as the men's wages often did not suffice. Social housing projects led
to the next milestone: the "Frankfurt kitchen". Developed in 1926, this kitchen
measured 1.9m by 3.4m (approximately 6'2" by 11'2"), with a standard layout. It
was built for two purposes: to optimize kitchen work to reduce cooking time (so
that women would have more time for the factory) and to lower the cost of
building decently-equipped kitchens. The design, created by Margarete
Schütte-Lihotzky, was the result of detailed time-motion studies and heavily
influenced by the railway dining car kitchens of the period. It was built in
some 10,000 apartments in a social housing project of architect Ernst May in
Frankfurt.
The initial reception was heavily critical: people were not accustomed to the
changed processes also designed by Schütte-Lihotzky; it was so small that only
one person could work in it; some storage spaces intended for raw loose food
ingredients such as flour were reachable by children. But the Frankfurt kitchen
embodied a standard for the rest of the 20th century in rental apartments: the
"work kitchen". Too small to live or dine in, it was soon criticized as "exiling
the women in the kitchen", but the post-World War II conservatism coupled with
economic reasons prevailed. The kitchen once more was seen as a work place that
needed to be separated from the living areas. Practical reasons also played a
role in this development: just as in the bourgeois homes of the past, one reason
for separating the kitchen was to keep the steam and smells of cooking out of
the living room.
Technicalization
Enlarge picture
Stainless steel appliances have been very popular in modern western kitchens.
The idea of standardized dimensions and layout developed for the Frankfurt
kitchen took hold. The equipment used remained a standard for years to come: hot
and cold water on tap and a kitchen sink and an electrical or gas stove and
oven. Not much later, the refrigerator was added as a standard item. The concept
was refined in the "Swedish kitchen" using unit furniture with wooden fronts for
the kitchen cabinets. Soon the concept was amended by the use of smooth
synthetic door and drawer fronts, first in white, recalling a sense of
cleanliness and alluding to sterile lab or hospital settings, but soon after in
lively, friendly colors, too. A trend began in the 1940s in the United States to
equip the kitchen with electrified small and large kitchen appliances such as
blenders, toasters, and later also microwave ovens. Following the end of World
War II, massive demand in Europe for low-price, high-tech consumer goods led to
Western European kitchens being designed to accommodate new appliances such as
refrigerators and electric/gas cookers.
Parallel to this development in tenement buildings was the evolution of the
kitchen in homeowner's houses. There, the kitchens usually were somewhat larger,
suitable for everyday use as a dining room, but otherwise the ongoing
technicalization was the same, and the use of unit furniture also became a
standard in this market sector.
General technocentric enthusiasm even led some designers to take the "work
kitchen" approach even further, culminating in futuristic designs like Luigi
Colani's "kitchen satellite" (1969, commissioned by the German high-end kitchen
manufacturer Poggenpohl for an exhibit), in which the room was reduced to a ball
with a chair in the middle and all appliances at arm's length, an optimal
arrangement maybe for "applying heat to food", but not necessarily for actual
cooking. Such extravaganzas remained outside the norm, though.
In the former Eastern bloc countries, the official doctrine viewed cooking as a
mere necessity, and women should work "for the society" in factories, not at
home. Also, housing had to be built at low costs and quickly, which led directly
to the standardized apartment block using prefabricated slabs. The kitchen was
reduced to its minimums and the "work kitchen" paradigm taken to its extremes:
in East Germany for instance, the standard tenement block of the model "P2" had
tiny 4 m² kitchens in the inside of the building (no windows), connected to the
dining and living room of the 55 m² apartment and separated from the latter by a
pass-through or a window.
Free for all
Starting in the 1980s, the perfection of the extractor hood allowed an open
kitchen again, integrated more or less with the living room without causing the
whole apartment or house to smell. Before that, only a few earlier experiments,
typically in newly built upper middle class family homes, had open kitchens.
Examples are Frank Lloyd Wright's House Willey (1934) and House Jacobs (1936).
Both had open kitchens, with high ceilings (up to the roof) and were aired by
skylights. The extractor hood made it possible to build open kitchens in
apartments, too, where both high ceilings and skylights were not possible.
The re-integration of the kitchen and the living area went hand in hand with a
change in the perception of cooking: increasingly, cooking was seen as a
creative and sometimes social act instead of work, especially in upper social
classes. Besides, many families also appreciated the trend towards open
kitchens, as it made it easier for the parents to supervise the children while
cooking. The enhanced status of cooking also made the kitchen a prestige object
for showing off one's wealth or cooking professionalism. Some architects have
capitalized on this "object" aspect of the kitchen by designing freestanding
"kitchen objects". However, like their precursor, Colani's "kitchen satellite",
such futuristic designs are exceptions.
Another reason for the trend back to open kitchens (and a foundation of the
"kitchen object" philosophy) is changes in how food is prepared. Whereas prior
to the 1950s most cooking started out with raw ingredients and a meal had to be
prepared from scratch, the advent of frozen meals and pre-prepared convenience
food changed the cooking habits of many people, who consequently used the
kitchen less and less. For others, who followed the "cooking as a social act"
trend, the open kitchen had the advantage that they could be with their guests
while cooking, and for the "creative cooks" it might even become a stage for
their cooking performance. The "Trophy Kitchen" is highly equipped with very
expensive and sophisticated appliances which are used primarily to impress
visitors and to project social status, rather than for actual cooking.
Domestic kitchen planning
Enlarge picture
Beecher's "model kitchen" brought early ergonomic principles to the home.
Domestic kitchen design per se is a relatively recent discipline. The first
ideas to optimize the work in the kitchen go back to Catharine Beecher's A
Treatise on Domestic Economy (1843, revised and republished together with her
sister Harriet Beecher Stowe as The American Woman's Home in 1869). Beecher's
"model kitchen" propagated for the first time a systematic design based on early
ergonomics. The design included regular shelves on the walls, ample work space,
and dedicated storage areas for various food items. Beecher even separated the
functions of preparing food and cooking it altogether by moving the stove into a
compartment adjacent to the kitchen.
Christine Frederick published from 1913 a series of articles on "New Household
Management" in which she analyzed the kitchen following Taylorist principles,
presented detailed time-motion studies, and derived a kitchen design from them.
Her ideas were taken up in the 1920s by architects in Germany and Austria, most
notably Bruno Taut, Erna Meyer, and Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky. A social housing
project in Frankfurt (the Römerstadt of architect Ernst May) realized in 1927/8
was the breakthrough for her Frankfurt kitchen, which embodied this new notion
of efficiency in the kitchen.
While this "work kitchen" and variants derived from it were a great success for
tenement buildings, home owners had different demands and didn't want to be
constrained by a 6.4 m² kitchen. Nevertheless, kitchen design was mostly ad-hoc
following the whims of the architect. In the U.S., the "Small Homes Council",
since 1993 the "Building Research Council", of the School of Architecture of the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign was founded in 1944 with the goal to
improve the state of the art in home building, originally with an emphasis on
standardization for cost reduction. It was there that the notion of the kitchen
work triangle was formalized: the three main functions in a kitchen are storage,
preparation, and cooking (which Catharine Beecher had already recognized), and
the places for these functions should be arranged in the kitchen in such a way
that work at one place does not interfere with work at another place, the
distance between these places is not unnecessarily large, and no obstacles are
in the way. A natural arrangement is a triangle, with the refrigerator, the
sink, and the stove at a vertex each.
This observation led to a few common kitchen forms, commonly characterized by
the arrangement of the kitchen cabinets and sink, stove, and refrigerator:
* A single-file kitchen (or one-way galley) has all of these along one wall; the
work triangle degenerates to a line. This is not optimal, but often the only
solution if space is restricted. This may be common in an attic space that is
being converted into a living space, or a studio apartment.
* The double-file kitchen (or two-way galley) has two rows of cabinets at
opposite walls, one containing the stove and the sink, the other the
refrigerator. This is the classical work kitchen.
* In the L-kitchen, the cabinets occupy two adjacent walls. Again, the work
triangle is preserved, and there may even be space for an additional table at a
third wall, provided it doesn't intersect the triangle.
* A U-kitchen has cabinets along three walls, typically with the sink at the
base of the "U". This is a typical work kitchen, too, unless the two other
cabinet rows are short enough to place a table at the fourth wall.
* The block kitchen (or island) is a more recent development, typically found in
open kitchens. Here, the stove or both the stove and the sink are placed where
an L or U kitchen would have a table, in a freestanding "island", separated from
the other cabinets. In a closed room, this doesn't make much sense, but in an
open kitchen, it makes the stove accessible from all sides such that two persons
can cook together, and allows for contact with guests or the rest of the family,
since the cook doesn't face the wall anymore.
In the 1980's there was a backlash against industrial kitchen planning and
cabinets with people installing a mix of work surfaces and free standing
furniture, led by kitchen designer Johnny Grey and his concept of the "Unfitted
Kitchen".
Modern kitchens often have enough informal space to allow for people to eat in
it without having to use the formal dining room. Such areas are called
"breakfast areas", "breakfast nooks" or "breakfast bars" if the space is
integrated into a kitchen counter. Kitchens with enough space to eat in are
sometimes called "eat-in kitchens".
Other kitchen types
Enlarge picture
A chef can prepare fresh food for hundreds in this 20th century canteen kitchen.
Restaurant and canteen kitchens found in hotels, hospitals, army barracks, and
similar establishments are generally (in developed countries) subject to public
health laws. They are inspected periodically by public-health officials, and
forced to close if they don't meet hygienic requirements mandated by law.
Canteen kitchens (and castle kitchens) were often the places where new
technology was used first. For instance, Benjamin Thompson's "energy saving
stove", an early 19th century fully-closed iron stove using one fire to heat
several pots, was designed for large kitchens; another thirty years passed
before they were adapted for domestic use.
Today's western restaurant kitchens typically have tiled walls and floors and
use stainless steel for other surfaces (workbench, but also door and drawer
fronts) because these materials are durable and easy to clean. Professional
kitchens are often equipped with gas stoves, as these allow cooks to regulate
the heat quicker and more finely than electrical stoves. Some special appliances
are typical for professional kitchens, such as large installed deep fryers,
steamers, or a Bain Marie. (As of 2004, steamers—not to be confused with a
pressure cooker—are beginning to find their way into domestic households,
sometimes as a combined appliance of oven and steamer.)
The fast food and convenience food trends have also changed the way restaurant
kitchens operate. There is a trend for restaurants to only "finish" delivered
convenience food or even just re-heat completely prepared meals, maybe at the
utmost grilling a hamburger or a steak.
The kitchens in railway dining cars present special challenges: space is
constrained, and nevertheless the personnel must be able to serve a great number
of meals quickly. Especially in the early history of the railway this required
flawless organization of processes; in modern times, the microwave oven and
prepared meals have made this task a lot easier. Galleys are kitchens aboard
ships (although the term galley is also often used to refer to a railroad dining
car's kitchen). On yachts, galleys are often cramped, with one or two gas
burners fuelled by a gas bottle, but kitchens on cruise ships or large warships
are comparable in every respect with restaurants or canteen kitchens. On
passenger airplanes, the kitchen is reduced to a mere pantry, the only function
reminiscent of a kitchen is the heating of in-flight meals (where they haven't
been "optimized" away altogether) delivered by a catering company. An extreme
form of the kitchen occurs in space, e.g. aboard a Space Shuttle (where it is
also called the "galley") or the International Space Station. The astronauts'
food is generally completely prepared, dehydrated, and sealed in plastic
pouches, and the kitchen is reduced to a rehydration and heating module.
Outdoor areas in which food is prepared are generally not considered to be
kitchens, although an outdoor area set up for regular food preparation, for
instance when camping, might be called an "outdoor kitchen". Military camps and
similar temporary settlements of nomads may have dedicated kitchen tents.
Enlarge picture
The Food Technology room at Marling School in Stroud, Gloucestershire.
In Schools where Home Economics (HE) or Food technology (previously known as
Domestic science) is taught, there will be a series of kitchens with multiple
equipment (similar in some respects to laboratories) solely for the purpose of
teaching. These will consist of between 6 and 12 workstations, each with their
own oven, sink and kitchen utensils.
Kitchens around the world
Japan
Enlarge picture
An example of a Japanese Kitchen
Japanese kitchen
Kitchens in Japan are called Daidokoro (台所;lit. "kitchen"). Daidokoro is the
place where food is prepared in a Japanese house. Until the Meiji era, a kitchen
was also called kamado (かまど; lit. stove) and there are many sayings in the
Japanese language that involve kamado as it was considered the symbol of a house
and the term could even be used to mean "family" or "household" (similar to the
English word "hearth"). When separating a family, it was called Kamado wo wakeru,
which means "divide the stove". Kamado wo yaburu (lit. "break the stove") means
that the family was bankrupt.
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rs. They can choose what to do, and when, whether it be training their
money-making skills, or fighting another player. Players usually interact with
each other by chatting through public chat, or private chat.Internet
Junction For Gamers, Runescape Market and More IJFG.COM IJFG.com was a
runescape 2 based site. They have now, however, taken another look....
Of course the king of all game
cheating websites is
trick
the trik (otherwise known as RPG Cheats Site), where you can find cheat
forums, mmorpg topsite, arcade games and any mmo game related topics.
The master of massive multiplayer
online role-playing games (MMORPG) cheats can be found at Trik.com
Trik.com; this site is one of the best today. The forum section,
Trik.com forum, originally came from IJFG.com (Internet Junction For
Gamers) , which was one of the best websites that discussed various gamers'
issues. The full name was Internet Junction For Gamers, Runescape Market and
More. This site had Jokes, Pranks, RuneScape and other cool games. RuneScape is
set in a medieval fantasy world, similar to "Guild Wars" or "EverQuest," where
players control character representations of themselves. As with most MMORPG,
there is no overall objective or end to the game. Players explore, form
alliances, perform optional tasks, and complete quests for rewards and to build
characters' skills.
Trik.com continues IJFG.com's
success, but Trik.com has more to offer. Trik Topsite can be found at
Trik Topsite; the TopSite is a great addition if you want to find the best
MMO RPG site(s) or raise your site in the rankings. Trik.com also has a
viciously competitive Arcade. If you want to be the #1 Arcade on Trik, then come
prove yourself at Trik.com arcade:
Trik arcade. Trik.com ?Trik.com/topsite ?Trik.com/forum/arcade.php
With the rising popularity of
commercial MMORPG games came the desire from ardent players of these games to
run their own servers beside the ones run by the game's creator. Since the
original server software is not usually available, the behavior of the server
has to be re-engineered. This can be done by analyzing the data stream with the
original server, or by disassembling and analyzing the client which is
available.
Ultima Online was one of the first
large MMORPGs. Due to its openness in implementation, server emulators arose
very quickly, even during the beta stage of development. The destination to
which the client connects was changeable by simply editing a text file. In beta
stage the client-server data stream was not encrypted yet. The term server
emulator became known through Ultima Online server reimplementation such as UOX,
which was the pioneer. Many forks and reimplementations followed UOX, because
its source code was released under the GNU General Public License relatively
early. RunUO is today the most widely used UO-server emulator. After RuneScape
implemented anti-cheating measures, many gamers left and started their own
private servers. The best place to discuss the private server is at
Trik- The Master of Private Server.
Another useful site is
Rune
Web ruwb.com . This site is about more serious RuneScape gold trading,
account exchange, gold for real life cash and many services. It includes tips on
how to avoid getting lured/scammed while using the marketplace. For programming,
visual basics, java, C/C++, scar and all other languages such as PHP, HTML, ASP,
Delphi. There are also sections for graphics talents, plus many cool videos and
fun stuff.
A defining moment in internet
gaming history was when a group of gamers called (hygo 7) decided to start an
ultimate game forum, which they named
hygo.com. It has the best financial backing, the friendliest game community,
and the highest quality of information. Currently Hygo.com has entered a new
phase...Hygo.com is offering the best private server game. With thousands of
members, Hygo.com is your next place to visit, as they have an amazing game with
a community and economy.
Hygo.com - The Online Adventure Game. is definitely one of the top sites you
want to join right now!
EZud is another popular site.
ezud.com. It has the best runescape bug abuse, bugs and trik.
ezud.com - The runescape bugs. is definitely one of the best sites you want
to join right now!
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